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The main purpose of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of the code-switching phenomenon to
have positive impacts upon teaching and learning process. The study investigates the linguistic features of codeswitching, that include intra-sentential code-switching, inter-sentential code-switching and code-switching at word, phrase and clause level, which are examined in both male and female university teachers’ lectures. Several findings from Urdu/English code-switching corpus, collected from universities of Lahore city, are presented and analyzed. It is investigated that while making use of code-switching, there is a frequent use of different linguistic features of code-switching between Urdu and English by university teachers. It is found that intra-sentential codeswitching (37.15%) is the leading code-switched area, and code-switching at word (31.21%), clause (21.54%), and phrase (6.42%) level, being a part of inter-sentential code-switching, are the successive areas. On the other hand, inter-sentential code-switching (3.66%) makes the least of it.
Keywords: Code-switching, classroom interaction, bilingual, intra-sentential code-switching, inter-sentential
code-switching
1. Introduction
Usually, we observe bilinguals mixing two languages when speaking. In fact, this situation of bilingualism is
present in every country, in all classes of society and at all age levels (Grosjean, 1982). In Pakistan, which is a
multilingual society and where many people have the knowledge of two or more languages, the linguistic
phenomenon of mixing languages is quite common. For example, if Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, is
taken then one can find that the insertion of English items in Urdu sentence is a frequent feature in the speech of educated bilingual Pakistani speakers. Even if they do not possess the ability to speak in English, they employ English words and phrases to give their discourse a touch of English that has social meaning (kaleem Raza khan, 2004). When fluent bilingual speakers of various languages make conversation, they often include words, phrases,clauses and sentences from different languages in a single discourse. This alternative use by bilinguals of two or more languages in the same conversation is called code-switching (Milroy and Muysken, 1995). Code-switching is a subject, which has existed in the literature on bilingualism since the early nineteen hundreds when Espinosa (1917) wrote of a „speech mixture‟ in the speech of New Mexicans (cited by Ana Huerta- Macias and Elizabeth Quintero, 2001). Code-Switching is from the combination of two words „Code and switching‟. Ronald Wardhaugh (1986) says, „that the term code can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication‟, whether it is language or dialect or pidgins and creoles, all are codes. Nevertheless, when this spoken form of language or dialect etc. turns into writing, then it is called codification. On the other hand, if we look at „switching‟, it appears just a „movement‟; movement from one object to another. This means that you shift, switch or move from one code to another while speaking. This shift, switch, and movement of bilingual speakers from one code (language) to another code, is called code switching. Coming to classroom context, „the pedagogical and communicative functions of classroom code-switching justify its use in teaching and learning contexts‟ (Romylyn A. Metila, 2009, P. 44). In Pakistani classroom, code-switching across a range of curricular subjects is a widespread phenomenon. Apart from language classes, universities use English as a medium of instruction. Whether it is mathematics class, EFL, ESL class or any other language class, English language is supplemented with other languages. It means that code-switching exists in some proportion. While keeping aside regional languages, this code-switching involves Urdu, our national language and English, the symbol of economic power, social realities, political force and in fact the Lingua Franca. It means that learning and teaching in classrooms is supported by this blend of Urdu and English. Commenting on this aspect of code switching, Mamokgethi Setati and Jill Adler (2001, pp. 243-244) say:
Code-switching in a school classroom usually refers to bilingual or multilingual setting, and at its
most general, entails switching by the teacher and/or learners between the language of learning
and teaching (LOLT) and the learners‟ main language. Code-switching is a practice that enables
learners to harness their main language as a learning resource.
In classrooms, code-switching as a learning resource occurs at different levels. If on one hand there is a switch of grammatical items i.e. verbs, adjectives and linkers etc., then on the other hand this switch involves registers and technical language. While keeping in view this aspect of code-switching, Lalita Malik (1994, p. 10) says:
Code-switching is context-governed phenomenon. If interlocutors have a degree in English and
use English as the medium of lecturing or in their office work, they are likely to use information
carrying items of English and linkers of Hindi. In case the topic of discourse is of a technical,
their registral items are likely to be from English and grammatical items from Hindi.
Though code-switching is very common in classroom interactions, still it is considered unfavorable by teachers in general. It is believed that students who code-switch are poor speakers of both English and Urdu. Many people consider code-switching as biased one, and even give it pejorative names such as Urdish and Spanglish. Some people say that code-switching is because of incompetency in language, while other considers it as a sign of laziness. It is believed that they speak neither Urdu nor English. If this is teachers‟ belief about the use of code switching, then how its use will be supported. How will bilingual students be able to seek help from the use of code-switching? The negative beliefs of teachers towards code-switching are needed to be changed as they strongly impact upon students‟ success or failure in schools. Beliefs guide teachers‟ thoughts and behaviors (Borg, 2001). Teachers‟ stated beliefs play an important role in classroom interactions, the material to be selected, the activities to be performed and the language to be used during instruction and accepted from students during teacher-student and student-student interactions. Teachers‟ beliefs determine classroom interactions, which are done through language use. In other word teachers need to revise their negative attitudes and beliefs towards code-switching and should recognize the role of both L1 (see Glenn S. Levine, 2003 and Tikunoff &VazquezFaria, 1982) and L2 in the learners‟ learning process, which is compartmentalized by them due to which they try to avoid code-switching. So, there is a need for better understanding of code-switching phenomenon among classroom teachers and this study is conducted to help in this regard. Code-switching, the use of two languages in a single discourse is not a random phenomenon, but a highly effective one. Code-switching serves many functions e.g. identity marker (Shin, 2010; Carmen Fought, 2003;
Sridher, 1996; Nishimura, 1995; Kroskrity, 1993; Woolard, 1989; Gumperz, 1982), solidarity marker (Hannah
Bradby, 2002), dominance and prestige (Karen Wong, 2000; Waseem, 2000), preciseness (Hussein, 1999;
Bonvillain, 1993), strategy of neutrality (Myers Scotton, 1993), style shifting (Hannah Bradby, 2002), reiteration, personalization, address specification, interjection and quotation (Gumperz, 1982). Functions related to classroom context are translation of unknown vocabulary items, explaining grammar, managing class (Mingfa Yao, 2011), clarification (Ajmal Gulzar, 2010), emphasizing some points, expressing empathy and solidarity with students, and facilitating understanding by quoting other‟s words (Liu Jingxia, 2010; Eda Üstünel & Paul Seedhouse, 2005). „Teachers‟ code-switching is an effective teaching strategy when dealing with low English proficient learners‟ (Badrul Hisham Ahmad, 2009, p. 49). According to Alex Brice (1997) and Reyes (1995) code-switching is an indication of a sophisticated user who exhibits a sound cognitive linguistic functioning. Similarly, Li (2000) elaborates that code-switching is a typical feature of the speech of bilingual speakers rather than deficiency. Codeswitching is not an indicator of deficient language skills in the bilingual speakers. There are numerous investigations (Shin & Milroy, 2000; Li & Milroy, 1995; Myers-Scotton, 1993), which have demonstrated just the opposite and consider code-switching as an additional resource for interaction purpose. It is obvious that there is well-documented sophisticated literature, which rejects the negative claim that codeswitching is a sign of laziness and deficiency in language. Rather, it claims that bilingual speakers have the prestige of exploiting their treasure of linguistic knowledge to express meaningful thoughts and ideas (Karen Wong, 2000). Its use can also help in effective instruction. The use of code-switching‟ while making use of native language, when students are not clear about a point or when participation is needed, not only makes instruction effective, but also develops students‟ rapport with teacher and develops confidence to interact. In this regard Ernesto Macaro (2001), quoting Atkinson (1993), says that excluding L1 from classroom is not only impractical but also means depriving learners from one of the learning tools.
Learners can make use of code-switching in both participant-related functions, which involve the role of students and teacher in classrooms and also in discourse-related functions, which include bilingual practices outside classrooms (Grit Liebscher and Jennifer Dailey-O‟Cain, 2005). One can find its feasibility as a means of developing bilingualism, which is „the ability to use two languages in varying degrees of proficiency and in
different contexts such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking‟ (Alex Brice, 1997). According to Krashen
(1981), comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. It means that there is a need of scaffolding
process and the best way of scaffolding, which fits well here in this context, is code-switching. This means that
They would realize that code-switching is a complex process, which involves different levels of switching
according to the proficiency in both the languages. This study provides quantitative analysis of the linguistic
features of code-switching which serve a variety of pedagogical functions, whether in teacher-led classroom
discourse or in teacher-student interaction or in students-students interaction. In this study, teachers‟ classroom
interaction is used to refer to teachers‟ lectures and teachers discourse with students. It is believed that the
conducted study can change teachers‟ stigmatized beliefs about code-switching use in EFL and other subject
classrooms and would contribute to the field of language education and educational research.
The second important aspect, which this study focuses on, is the ratio by which the two languages are to be used while switching from one language to another. For instance let teachers attitudes are changed about codeswitching and they are willing to code switch, then what should be the ratio between the two languages during instruction because language management is a very important concern of bilingual education. In this regard Macswan (1997, p. 303), citing Jacobson (1983), says:
By code-switching in the classroom students will acquire subject-appropriate vocabulary in L1
and L2, and none of the practical problems of other approaches will be present. However, this
switching may not be done haphazardly or randomly. In order for it to be educationally effective,
four criteria must be met; (1) the language must be distributed at an appropriate ratio of 50/50; (2)
the teaching of content must not be conscious of his/her alternation between the two languages;
and (3) the alternation must accomplish a specific learning goal. Code-switching instruction,
which does not meet these criteria Jacobson calls the “Unstructured approach”.
Here Jacobson‟s third point that teacher should be conscious of the learning goal and the ways how to achieve that goal, is very important. It means that teacher should be aware of the fact whether switch should be made at word, phrase, clause or sentence level. This study provides information about the proportion at which words, phrases, clauses and sentences can be switched during instruction. In short, the main purpose of this study is to have an idea of the code-switching practice and its different linguistic features.
language development takes place through samples of language, which are appropriate, and code-switching may be signaling the need for provision of appropriate samples. Cook (1991) says that lesson can be made more communicative when code-switching is integrated into the activities which are formulated for second language teaching. This allows the balance use of both languages according to the situation and hence facilitates both teacher and students. Therefore, this study is conducted to make teachers aware that code-switching is a quite common occurrence in Pakistani EFL and many other subjects‟ classroom and it may be helpful in changing teachers‟ negative beliefs about code-switching practice as incompetence in both languages.
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